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Korean New Year

 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_New_Year

Korean New Year

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For other traditions of celebrating lunar new year, see Lunar New Year (disambiguation).

Korean New Year
Traditional game tuho being played.
Also called	Lunar New Year
Observed by	Korean people around the world
Type	Korean, cultural, Buddhist
Significance	The first day of the Korean calendar (lunar calendar)
2012 date	January 23
2013 date	February 10
2014 date	January 31
Related to	Mongolian New Year, Tibetan New Year, Japanese New Year, Chinese New Year, Vietnamese New Year

This article contains Korean text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Hangul or Hanja.

Korean New Year, commonly known as Seollal (Hangul: 설날; RR: Seollal; MR: Sŏllal), is the first day of the lunar calendar. It is the most important of the traditional Korean holidays. It consists of a period of celebrations, starting on New Year's Day. Koreans also celebrate solar New Year's Day on January 1 each year, following the Gregorian Calendar. The Korean New Year holiday lasts three days, and is considered a more important holiday than the solar New Year's Day.^[1]
The term "Seollal" generally refers to Eumnyeok Seollal (음력 설날, lunar new year), also known as Gujeong (Hangul: 구정; Hanja: 舊正). Less commonly, "Seollal" also refers to Yangnyeok Seollal (양력 설날, solar new year), also known as Sinjeong (Hangul: 신정; Hanja: 新正).
Korean New Year generally falls on the day of the second new moon after winter solstice, unless there is a very rare intercalary eleventh or twelfth month in the lead-up to the New Year. In such a case, the New Year falls on the day of the third new moon after the solstice; the next occurrence of this will be in 2033.

Contents 1 Customs 2 Tteokguk 3 Sebae 4 Folk games 5 References 6 External links

Customs

Korean new Year is typically a family holiday. The three-day holiday is used by many to return to their hometowns to visit their parents and other relatives, where they perform an ancestral ritual. Many Koreans dress up in colorful traditional Korean clothing called hanbok. But nowadays, small families tend to become less formal and wear other formal clothing instead of hanbok.

Tteokguk

Tteokguk (떡국) (soup with sliced rice cakes) is a traditional Korean food that is customarily eaten for the New Year. According to Korean age reckoning, the Korean New Year is similar to a birthday for Koreans, and eating Tteokguk is part of the birthday celebration. Once you finish eating your Tteokguk, you are one year older.

Sebae

Sebae is a traditionally observed activity on Seollal, and is filial-piety-oriented. Children wish their elders (grandparents, aunts and uncles, parents) a happy new year by performing one deep traditional bow (rites with more than one bow involved are usually for the deceased) and the words saehae bok mani badeuseyo (Hangul: 새해 복 많이 받으세요) which translates to Receive many New Year blessings, or more loosely, "Have a blessed New Year." Parents typically reward this gesture by giving their children new year's money, or "pocket money," (usually in the form of crisp paper money) in luck bags made with beautiful silk design and offering words of wisdom, deokdam. Historically, parents gave out rice cakes (ddeok) and fruit to their children instead. Before and during the bowing ceremony, children wear hanboks as a respectful way to appreciate ancestors and elders.

Folk games

Many traditional games are associated with the Korean New Year. The traditional family board game yunnori (윷놀이) is still a popular game nowadays. Yut Nori(Yunnori) is a traditional board game played in Korea, especially during Korean New Year. It is played using different types of specially designed sticks. Traditionally men and boys would fly rectangle kites called yeonnalligi, and play jegi chagi (제기차기), a game in which a light object is wrapped in paper or cloth, and then kicked in a footbag like manner. Korean women and girls would have traditionally played neolttwigi (널뛰기), a game of jumping on a seesaw (시소), and gongginolie, game played with five little gonggi (originally a little stone, but today many buy manufactured gongi in shops) while children spin paengi (팽이).


---

 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_solstice

Winter solstice

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This article is about the astronomical and cultural event of winter solstice, also known as midwinter. For other uses, see Winter solstice (disambiguation), Midwinter (disambiguation) or also see Solstice.

"Goru" redirects here. For the village in Iran, see Goru, Iran.

UT date and time of equinoxes and solstices on Earth[1]
event	Northward equinox		Northern solstice		Southward equinox		Southern solstice
month	March		June		September		December
year
	day	time	day	time	day	time	day	time
2010	20	17:32	21	11:28	23	03:09	21	23:38
2011	20	23:21	21	17:16	23	09:04	22	05:30
2012	20	05:14	20	23:09	22	14:49	21	11:12
2013	20	11:02	21	05:04	22	20:44	21	17:11
2014	20	16:57	21	10:51	23	02:29	21	23:03
2015	20	22:45	21	16:38	23	08:20	22	04:48
2016	20	04:30	20	22:34	22	14:21	21	10:44
2017	20	10:28	21	04:24	22	20:02	21	16:28
2018	20	16:15	21	10:07	23	01:54	21	22:23
2019	20	21:58	21	15:54	23	07:50	22	04:19
2020	20	03:50	20	21:44	22	13:31	21	10:02

Winter solstice in Northern Hemisphere.

The winter solstice is the solstice that occurs in winter. It is the time at which the sun appears at noon at its lowest altitude above the horizon.^[2] In the Northern Hemisphere this is the Southern solstice, the time at which the Sun is at its southernmost point in the sky, which usually occurs on December 21 to 22 each year.^[3]
In the Southern Hemisphere this is the Northern solstice, the time at which the Sun is at its northernmost point in the sky, which usually occurs on June 20 to 21 each year.^[4]
The axial tilt of Earth and gyroscopic effects of the planet's daily rotation keep the axis of rotation pointed at the same point in the sky. As the Earth follows its orbit around the Sun, the same hemisphere that faced away from the Sun, experiencing winter, will, in half a year, face towards the Sun and experience summer. Since the two hemispheres face opposite directions along the planetary pole, as one polar hemisphere experiences winter, the other experiences summer.
More evident from high latitudes, a hemisphere's winter solstice occurs on the shortest day and longest night of the year, when the sun's daily maximum elevation in the sky is the lowest.^[5] Since the winter solstice lasts only a moment in time, other terms are often used for the day on which it occurs, such as "midwinter", "the longest night", "the shortest day" or "the first day of winter". The seasonal significance of the winter solstice is in the reversal of the gradual lengthening of nights and shortening of days. The earliest sunset and latest sunrise dates differ from winter solstice, however, and these depend on latitude, due to the variation in the solar day throughout the year caused by the Earth's elliptical orbit, see earliest and latest sunrise and sunset.
Worldwide, interpretation of the event has varied from culture to culture, but most Northern Hemisphere cultures have held a recognition of rebirth, involving holidays, festivals, gatherings, rituals or other celebrations around that time.<sup>[6]


------

 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tteokguk</sup>

Tteokguk

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Tteokguk

Origin
Place of origin	Korea
Details
Type	Tteok
Main ingredient(s)	Broth (beef, chicken, pork, pheasant, or seafood; soy sauce), garaetteok
Other information	Traditional for Korean New Year

Tteokguk
Hangul	떡국
Revised Romanization	tteokguk
McCune–Reischauer	ttŏkkuk

Tteokguk is a traditional Korean dish eaten during the celebration of the Korean New Year. The dish consists of the broth/soup (guk) with thinly sliced rice cakes (tteok - it can be called a kind of rice pasta). It is tradition to eat tteokguk on New Year's Day because it is believed to grant the consumer luck for the forthcoming year and gain an additional year of life. It is usually garnished with thin julienned cooked eggs, marinated meat, and gim.^[1]

Contents

 ^{------
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_age_reckoning}

East Asian age reckoning

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  (Redirected from Korean age reckoning)

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Dol, the traditional way of celebrating a birthday of a one-year old child in South Korea.

East Asian age reckoning is a concept and practice that originated in China and is widely used by other cultures in East Asia and Vietnam, which share this traditional way of counting a person's age. Newborns start at one year old, and each passing of a Lunar New Year, rather than the birthday, adds one year to the person's age. In other words, the first year of life is counted as one instead of zero, so that a person is two years old in their second year, three years old in their third, and so on.^[1][2] Since age is incremented on the new year rather than on a birthday, people may be 1 or 2 years older in Asian reckoning than in the Western system.
The system is also widely used by South Koreans, with the exception of the legal system. In Eastern Outer Mongolia, age is traditionally determined based on the number of full moons since conception for girls, and the number of new moons since birth for boys. In Japan and Vietnam it is used for traditional fortune-telling or religion, but it is disappearing in daily life among people in the city.

Patterns within the game of life

Now that a new insight have been found, life seems to be easy now...
Questions that I have now answered:

Why do we look for patterns??
Patterns in life represent the "rules of game".
These rules express which actions will be punished, and which actions will bring benefits. They are expressed through structures which were created by past agents and historical forces.
You need to look for these patterns because they are different at each time (different from your elders' time), and in each cultural grouping (i.e. city/country).
Get your actions closer to these "rules" and you will invite benefits to yourself. To do this you need complete information, and to do the right thing at the right time (i.e. become a rational actor).
Act away from these rules, and you be be punished. And continue to be punished again and again.

Individuals have free will and so they can choose to act away from these rules. However, for expressing their "individuality" they will be punished, and continue to be punished for acting away from the rules. Most often the result is despair within the system, or an attempt to get out of system altogether (move to a different country?).
Is strength being able to continue to express your "individuallity" while continously being punished again and again by these structural forces? I don't think so.

As free-willed individuals, we can attempt to change the structures that govern these "rules of the game". But when we are young, it is close to impossible. Why? Because we don't fully understand the rules of the world (lack of life experience), and we have less power (financial, social connections and work experience). The only possible exception is those youth who have recieved social and financial power from their parents (social and cultural inheritance).

I would suggest that to be able to become stronger socially than you already are, to first shutup, say yes to everyone above you, work hard, save lots and follow the rules to recieve the benefits of the mainstream. After you have enough resources, and enough wisdom, then you can have the freedom to pursue what you want.

We can create our own history, but only when the strength of that historical power gets past a threshold can we truly be powerful enough to control our own destiny.
Strength to the loyalists. Drop your heads, and bow to the kings above us.

The Game of LIfe - Structures of Incentives

If we make the assumption of rationality for every player, we can
make precise predictions about individual behaviour. However, little evidence of
rational calculation was found. It is better to think of the game-theoretic analysis
as telling us not about people but about structures. It tells what behaviour
is rewarded and what is punished under the rules of the game. Participants learn
about the game through trial and error. The link between structure and individual
behaviour is not rationality but learning; and collective learning is
evolutionary.

Evolution at the aggregate level is produced both by individual learning and
by the process of entry and exit from the game. Players who do not win, who are
unable or unwilling to use the optimal strategies, tend to exit. In 1946 the
American Occupation purged over 80 per cent of the prewar incumbents, not
allowing them to run for public office. New, often idealistic, candidates flooded
the field. But the weeding out soon began. The next election was held only one
year later and only 40 per cent of the incumbents chose to run again. Many
winners proved incompetent at politics and others were simply uncomfortable
with the demands of the political game.32 As the prewar conservative ideologues
have retired, they have been replaced by more strategic candidates. As the
nature of the game became known, self-selection tended to produce entrants
whose values fit the structure of the game.

The great advantage of learning and evolution theories over rational theories
is the simplicity of the assumptions. One need only assume that the players value
the commodity being allocated and are capable of adjusting their behaviour
to avoid failure and seek success.

Napoleon and the French Revolution

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon

Napoleon

Napoleon I
The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries, by Jacques-Louis David, 1812
Emperor of the French
Reign	18 May 1804 – 11 April 1814 20 March 1815 – 22 June 1815
Coronation	2 December 1804
Predecessor	None (himself as First Consul of the French First Republic; previous ruling monarch was Louis XVI)
Successor	Louis XVIII (de jure in 1814)
King of Italy
Reign	17 March 1805 – 11 April 1814
Coronation	26 May 1805
Predecessor	None (himself as President of the Italian Republic; previous ruling monarch was Emperor Charles V)
Successor	None (kingdom disbanded, next king of Italy was Victor Emmanuel II)
Spouse	Joséphine de Beauharnais Marie Louise of Austria
Issue
Napoleon II
Full name
Napoleon Bonaparte
House	House of Bonaparte
Father	Carlo Buonaparte
Mother	Letizia Ramolino
Born	15 August 1769 Ajaccio, Corsica, France
Died	5 May 1821 (aged 51) Longwood, Saint Helena, British Empire
Burial	Les Invalides, Paris, France
Signature
Religion	Roman Catholicism (see Napoleon and religions)

Imperial Standard of Napoleon I

Napoleon Bonaparte (French: Napoléon Bonaparte [napoleɔ̃ bɔnɑpaʁt], Italian: Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the latter stages of the French Revolution and its associated wars in Europe.
As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1815. His legal reform, the Napoleonic Code, has been a major influence on many civil law jurisdictions worldwide, but he is best remembered for his role in the wars led against France by a series of coalitions, the so-called Napoleonic Wars. He established hegemony over most of continental Europe and sought to spread the ideals of the French Revolution, while consolidating an imperial monarchy which restored aspects of the deposed Ancien Régime. Due to his success in these wars, often against numerically superior enemies, he is generally regarded as one of the greatest military commanders of all time, and his campaigns are studied at military academies worldwide.^[1]
Napoleon was born at Ajaccio in Corsica to parents of noble Italian ancestry. He trained as an artillery officer in mainland France. He rose to prominence under the French First Republic and led successful campaigns against the First and Second Coalitions arrayed against France. He led a successful invasion of the Italian peninsula.
In 1799, he staged a coup d'état and installed himself as First Consul; five years later the French Senate proclaimed him emperor, following a plebiscite in his favour. In the first decade of the 19th century, the French Empire under Napoleon engaged in a series of conflicts—the Napoleonic Wars—that involved every major European power.^[1] After a streak of victories, France secured a dominant position in continental Europe, and Napoleon maintained the French sphere of influence through the formation of extensive alliances and the appointment of friends and family members to rule other European countries as French client states.
The Peninsular War and 1812 French invasion of Russia marked turning points in Napoleon's fortunes. His Grande Armée was badly damaged in the campaign and never fully recovered. In 1813, the Sixth Coalition defeated his forces at Leipzig; the following year the Coalition invaded France, forced Napoleon to abdicate and exiled him to the island of Elba. Less than a year later, he escaped Elba and returned to power, but was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815. Napoleon spent the last six years of his life in confinement by the British on the island of Saint Helena. An autopsy concluded he died of stomach cancer, but there has been some debate about the cause of his death, as some scholars have speculated that he was a victim of arsenic poisoning.


-------------------------


 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution

French Revolution

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For other uses, see French Revolution (disambiguation).

The French Revolution
The storming of the Bastille, 14 July 1789
Participants	French society
Location	France
Date	1789–1799
Result	A cycle of royal power being limited by uneasy constitutional monarchy—then abolition and replacement of the French king, aristocracy and church with a radical, secular, democratic republic—in turn becoming more authoritarian, militaristic and property-based. Radical social change to forms based on Enlightenment principles of citizenship and inalienable rights, as well as nationalism and democracy. Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte Armed conflicts with other European countries

Part of a series on the
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The French Revolution (French: Révolution française; 1789–1799), was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France that had a lasting impact on French history and more broadly throughout the world. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed within three years. French society underwent an epic transformation, as feudal, aristocratic and religious privileges evaporated under a sustained assault from radical left-wing political groups, masses on the streets, and peasants in the countryside.^[1] Old ideas about tradition and hierarchy–of monarchy, aristocracy, and religious authority–were abruptly overthrown by new Enlightenment principles of equality, citizenship and inalienable rights.
Amidst a fiscal crisis, the common people of France were increasingly angered by the incompetency of King Louis XVI and the continued indifference and decadence of the aristocracy. This resentment, coupled with burgeoning Enlightenment ideals, fueled radical sentiments, and the French Revolution began in 1789 with the convocation of the Estates-General in May. The first year of the Revolution saw members of the Third Estate proclaiming the Tennis Court Oath in June, the assault on the Bastille in July, the passage of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in August, and an epic march on Versailles that forced the royal court back to Paris in October. The next few years were dominated by struggles between various liberal assemblies and a right wing of supporters of the monarchy intent on thwarting major reforms.
A republic was proclaimed in September 1792 and King Louis XVI was executed the next year. External threats shaped the course of the Revolution. The French Revolutionary Wars began in 1792 and ultimately featured spectacular French victories that facilitated the conquest of the Italian Peninsula, the Low Countries and most territories west of the Rhine – achievements that had eluded previous French governments for centuries.
Internally, popular sentiments radicalized the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins and virtual dictatorship by the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror from 1793 until 1794 during which between 16,000 and 40,000 people were killed.^[2] After the fall of the Jacobins and the execution of Robespierre, the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795 and held power until 1799, when it was replaced by the Consulate under Napoleon Bonaparte.
The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution. The growth of republics and liberal democracies, the spread of secularism, the development of modern ideologies, and the invention of total war^[3] all mark their birth during the Revolution. Subsequent events that can be traced to the Revolution include the Napoleonic Wars, two separate restorations of monarchy (Bourbon Restoration and July Monarchy), and two additional revolutions (1830 and 1848) as modern France took shape.



--------------


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XVIII_of_France

Louis XVIII of France

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Louis XVIII
Louis XVIII, in his coronation robes, by François Gérard
King of France and of Navarre
Reign	De jure 11 June 1795 – 16 September 1824 De facto 11 April 1814 – 20 March 1815; then 8 July 1815 – 16 September 1824
Predecessor	Napoleon I As Emperor of the French.
Successor	Charles X
Spouse	Marie Joséphine of Savoy
Full name
Louis Stanislas Xavier de France
Father	Louis, Dauphin of France
Mother	Maria Josepha of Saxony
Born	17 November 1755 Palace of Versailles, France
Died	16 September 1824 (aged 68) Louvre Palace, Paris, France
Burial	Basilica of Saint Denis, France

Louis XVIII (Louis Stanislas Xavier; 17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824), known as "the Desired" (le Desiré),^[1] was a Bourbon King of France and of Navarre from 1814 to 1824, omitting the Hundred Days in 1815. Louis XVIII spent twenty-three years in exile, from 1791 to 1814, during the French Revolution and the First French Empire, and again in 1815, for 111 days, upon the return of Napoleon I from Elba.
Until his accession to the throne of France, Louis held the title of Count of Provence, being the brother of King Louis XVI. On the 21 September 1792, the National Convention abolished the monarchy and deposed King Louis XVI, who was later executed by guillotine.^[2] When the young Louis XVII, Louis XVI's son, died in prison in June 1795, Louis XVIII succeeded his nephew as titular King, although the monarchy had been disestablished.^[3]
During the French Revolution and the Napoleonic era, Louis XVIII lived in exile in Prussia, the United Kingdom and Russia.^[4] When the Sixth Coalition finally defeated Napoleon, Louis XVIII was restored to what he, and Royalists, considered his rightful place. This period was marked by an Ultra-royalist reaction. However Napoleon escaped from his exile in Elba, marched on Paris and restored the French Empire. Louis XVIII fled and a Seventh Coalition declared war on the French Empire, defeated Napoleon and for a second time restored Louis XVIII on the French throne. In 1823, Louis XVIII sent an expeditionary corps, known as the "Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis", in Spain to restore the absolute King of Spain.
Louis XVIII ruled as king for slightly less than a decade. The Bourbon Restoration regime was a constitutional monarchy (unlike the Ancien Régime, which was absolute). As a constitutional monarch, Louis XVIII's royal prerogative was reduced substantially by the Charter of 1814, France's new constitution. Louis had no children; therefore, upon his death, the crown passed to his brother, Charles, Count of Artois.^[5] Louis XVIII was the last French monarch to die while reigning.


-----------------------

Charles X of France

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"Charles X" redirects here. For the King of Sweden, see Charles X Gustav of Sweden, for the Catholic claimant of 1589, see Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon, for the Marvel character, see Professor X.

Charles X
King Charles X by François Pascal Simon Gérard, 1829.
King of France and of Navarre
Reign	16 September 1824 – 2 August 1830
Coronation	29 May 1825
Predecessor	Louis XVIII
Successor	Louis Philippe I as King of the French
Spouse	Marie Thérèse of Savoy
Issue
Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry
Full name
Charles Philippe de France
House	Bourbon
Father	Louis, Dauphin of France
Mother	Marie Josèphe of Saxony
Born	9 October 1757 Palace of Versailles, France
Died	6 November 1836 (aged 79) Görz, Austrian Empire (now in Italy)
Burial	Kostanjevica Monastery, Nova Gorica, Slovenia

Charles X (Charles Philippe; 9 October 1757 – 6 November 1836), called "the Beloved" (French: le Bien-Aimé),^[1] was known for most of his life as the Comte d'Artois before he reigned as King of France and of Navarre from 16 September 1824 until 2 August 1830.^[2] An uncle of the uncrowned King Louis XVII, and younger brother to reigning Kings Louis XVI and Louis XVIII, he supported the latter in exile and eventually succeeded him. His rule of almost six years ended in the July Revolution of 1830, which resulted in his abdication and the election of Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans, as King of the French. Exiled once again, Charles died in Gorizia, then part of the Austrian Empire.<sup>[3]



-----------------------------------



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I</sup>

Louis Philippe I

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This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (February 2012)

"Louis Philippe" redirects here. For other uses, see Louis Philippe (disambiguation).

Louis Philippe I
King of the French
Reign	9 August 1830 – 24 February 1848
Predecessor	Charles X as King of France
Successor	Title abolished, Second French Republic established
Spouse	Maria Amalia of Naples and Sicily
Issue
Ferdinand Philippe, Duke of Orléans Louise, Queen of the Belgians Marie, Duchess Alexander of Württemberg Prince Louis, Duke of Nemours Princess Françoise of Orléans Clémentine, Princess of Kohary Prince François, Prince of Joinville Prince Charles, Duke of Penthièvre Prince Henri, Duke of Aumale Prince Antoine, Duke of Montpensier
Full name
Louis Philippe d'Orléans
House	House of Orléans
Father	Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans
Mother	Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon
Born	6 October 1773 Palais-Royal, Paris, France
Died	26 August 1850 (aged 76) Claremont, Surrey, England, UK
Religion	Roman Catholic

Louis Philippe I (6 October 1773 – 26 August 1850) was King of the French from 1830 to 1848 in what was known as the July Monarchy. His father was a duke who supported the French Revolution but was nevertheless guillotined. Louis Philippe fled France as a young man and spent 21 years in exile. He was proclaimed king in 1830 after King Charles X was forced to abdicate. Louis Philippe himself was forced to abdicate in 1848 and lived out his life in exile in England. He was the last king to rule France, although Emperor Napoleon III would serve as its last monarch.






<sup>-----------------------


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_French_Republic</sup>

French Second Republic

French Republic République française
← 1848–1852 →
Flag Great Seal
Motto Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité "Liberty, Equality, Brotherhood"
Anthem La Marseillaise "The Song of Marseille"
Map of the French Second Republic
Capital		Paris
Languages		French
Government		Republic
Head of State
-	1848	Jacques-Charles Dupont
-	1848	Executive Commission
-	1848	Louis-Eugène Cavaignac
-	1848–1852	Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte
Head of Government
-	1848	Jacques-Charles Dupont
-	1848	François Arago
-	1848	Louis-Eugène Cavaignac
-	1848–1849	Odilon Barrot
-	1849–1851	Alphonse Henri
-	1851	Léon Faucher
Legislature		National Assembly
History
-	French Revolution	23 February 1848
-	Constitution adopted	4 November 1848
-	Coup of 1851	2 December 1851
-	Empire reestablished	2 December 1852
Currency		French Franc
Today part of		France

The French Second Republic was the republican government of France between the 1848 Revolution and the 1851 coup by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte which initiated the Second Empire. It officially adopted the motto Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité. The Second Republic witnessed the tension between the "Social and Democratic Republic" (French: la République démocratique et sociale) and a liberal form of Republic, which exploded during the June Days Uprising of 1848.



---------------------

  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_Monarchy

July Monarchy

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Kingdom of France Royaume de France
← 1830–1848 →
Flag Royal Coat of arms
Anthem La Parisienne "The Parisian"
Kingdom of France in 1848.
Capital		Paris
Languages		French
Religion		Roman Catholic
Government		Constitutional Monarchy
King
-	1830–1848	Louis-Phillipe I
-	1848	Louis-Phillipe II
President of the Council of Ministers
-	1830	Victor de Broglie (first)
-	1848	Louis-Mathieu Molé (last)
Legislature		Parliament
-	Upper house	Chamber of Peers
-	Lower house	Chamber of Deputies
History
-	July Revolution	26 July 1830
-	Constitution adopted	7 August 1830
-	French Revolution	23 February 1848
Currency		French Franc

The July Monarchy (French: la monarchie de Juillet), officially the Kingdom of France (Royaume de France), was a liberal constitutional monarchy in France under King Louis-Philippe starting with the July Revolution of 1830 (also known as the Three Glorious Days) and ending with the Revolution of 1848. It began with the overthrow of the conservative government of Charles X and the House of Bourbon. Louis-Philippe, a member of the traditionally more liberal Orléans branch of the House of Bourbon, proclaimed himself roi des Français ("King of the French") rather than roi de France ("King of France"), emphasizing the popular origins of his reign. The new regime's ideal was explicated by Louis-Philippe's famous statement in January 1831: "We will attempt to remain in a juste milieu (the just middle), in an equal distance from the excesses of popular power and the abuses of royal power."^[1]


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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration

Bourbon Restoration

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For the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty following the First Spanish Republic, see Spain under the Restoration.

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Kingdom of France Royaume de France
← 1814–1815 1815–1830 →
Flag Royal Coat of arms
Motto Montjoie Saint Denis! "Mount joy Saint Denis!"
Anthem Le Retour des Princes Français à Paris "The Return of the French Princes to Paris" Menu 0:00
The Kingdom of France in 1815.
Capital		Paris
Languages		French
Religion		Roman Catholic[1]
Government		Constitutional monarchy
King
-	1814–1824	Louis XVIII
-	1824–1830	Charles X
Prime Minister
-	1815	Charles de Bénévent (first)
-	1829–1830	Jules de Polignac (last)
Legislature		Parliament
-	Upper house	Chamber of Peers
-	Lower house	Chamber of Deputies
History
-	Restoration	6 April 1814
-	Treaty of Paris	30 May 1814
-	Constitution adopted	4 June 1814
-	Hundred Days	20 Mar – 7 Jul 1815
-	Invasion of Spain	6 April 1823
-	July Revolution	26 July 1830
Currency		French franc

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The Bourbon Restoration is the name given to the period following the successive events of the French Revolution (1789–1799), the end of the First Republic (1792–1804), and then the forcible end of the First French Empire under Napoleon (1804–1814/1815) – when a coalition of European powers restored by arms the monarchy to the heirs of the House of Bourbon, who once again became possessors of the Kingdom of France. The Bourbon Restoration existed from (about) 6 April 1814 until the popular uprisings of the July Revolution of 1830, excepting the interval of the "Hundred Days",^[a] less than a full year into the Restoration, when the Bourbon monarchy had again made themselves so unpopular with the general population of France that the family was again forced to flee Paris and France for Ghent, ahead of exploding civil disorders and collapsing civil authority.
At the beginning of the Hundred Days, deposed Emperor Napoleon I returned triumphantly to Paris from Elba. He was greeted with great acclaim and joy by French crowds lining the roads. Coming from far away with advance news spreading of his approach all along the way, crowds swelled his army overnight at his back, growing at every step, even by aggregating the very troops sent to arrest him by the monarchy on several occasions. With the flight of the king, after reaching Paris, he re-announced and reclaimed his dignities as Emperor. The European Great Powers were nowhere near as welcoming, and they quickly mobilized armies once more. This resulted in Napoleon's decisive defeat in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo.
There is little evidence that the Bourbon regime took away any lesson in the aftermath, and became increasingly annoying to the Parisian populace, and around France in general. The pre-revolution problems soon returned with court behavior driving home new hatreds between the upper and lower classes.
The new Bourbon regime was, however, a constitutional monarchy, unlike the Ancien Régime, which was absolute, so it had some limits on its abilities to govern. The period was characterized by a sharp conservative reaction, and consequent minor but consistent occurrences of civil unrest and disturbances.^[2] It also saw the re-establishment of the Roman Catholic Church as a power in French politics.<sup>[3]



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_French_Empire

First French Empire

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"French Empire" redirects here. For for the colonial empire, see French Colonial Empire.

"Empire of the French" and "Napoleonic Empire" redirect here. For the empire led by Napoleon III from 1852–1870, see Second French Empire.

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French Empire[1][2] Empire Français
↓ 1804–1814 1815 ↓
Flag Imperial Coat of arms
Anthem Chant du Départ[3] "Song of the Departure"
The First French Empire at its greatest extent in 1812.[4]   French Empire   Satellite states
Capital		Paris
Languages		French
Religion		Roman Catholicism
Government		Constitutional Monarchy
Emperor
-	1804–1814/1815	Napoleon I
-	1815	Napoleon II[5]
Legislature		Parliament
-	Upper house	Senate
-	Lower house	Corps législatif
Historical era		Napoleonic Wars
-	Constitution adopted	18 May 1804
-	Coronation of Napoleon I	2 December 1804
-	Treaty of Tilsit	7 July 1807
-	Invasion of Russia	24 June 1812
-	Treaty of Fontainebleau	11 April 1814
-	Hundred Days	20 March – 7 July 1815
Area
-	1812 [4]	2,100,000 km² (810,815 sq mi)
Population
-	1812 est.	44,000,000
Density		21 /km²  (54.3 /sq mi)
Currency		French Franc
Preceded by Succeeded by French First Republic Holy Roman Empire Kingdom of Holland Ligurian Republic Kingdom of Spain Kingdom of France United Kingdom of the Netherlands Neutral Moresnet Kingdom of Sardinia Austrian Empire Grand Duchy of Luxembourg Grand Duchy of Tuscany Kingdom of Spain
Today part of		Andorra  Austria  Belgium  Croatia  France  Germany  Italy  Liechtenstein  Lithuania  Luxembourg  Monaco  Poland  Netherlands  Slovenia  Spain  Switzerland  Vatican City

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The First French Empire^[1][2] (French: Empire Français), also known as the Greater French Empire or Napoleonic Empire, was the empire of Napoleon I of France. It was the dominant power of much of continental Europe at the beginning of the 19th century.
Napoleon became Emperor of the French (L'Empereur des Français, pronounced: [lɑ̃.pʁœʁ dɛ fʁɑ̃.sɛ]) on 18 May 1804 and crowned Emperor on 2 December 1804, ending the period of the French Consulate, and won early military victories in the War of the Third Coalition against Austria, Prussia, Russia, Portugal, and allied nations, notably at the Battle of Austerlitz (1805) and the Battle of Friedland (1807). The Treaty of Tilsit in July 1807 ended two years of bloodshed on the European continent.
The subsequent series of wars known collectively as the Napoleonic Wars extended French influence over much of Western Europe and into Poland. At its height in 1812, the French Empire had 130 départements, ruled over 44 million subjects, maintained an extensive military presence in Germany, Italy, Spain, and the Duchy of Warsaw, and could count Prussia and Austria as nominal allies.^[6] Early French victories exported many ideological features of the French Revolution throughout Europe. Seigneurial dues and seigneurial justice were abolished, aristocratic privileges were eliminated in all places except Poland, and the introduction of the Napoleonic Code throughout the continent increased legal equality, established jury systems, and legalized divorce.^[7] However Napoleon also placed relatives on the thrones of several European countries and granted many noble titles, most of which were not recognized after the empire fell.
Historians have estimated the death toll from the Napoleonic Wars to be 6.5 million people, or 15% of the French Empire's subjects. In particular, French losses in the Peninsular War in Spain severely weakened the Empire; after victory over the Austrian Empire in the War of the Fifth Coalition (1809) Napoleon deployed over 600,000 troops to attack Russia,^[8] in a catastrophic French invasion of the empire in 1812. The War of the Sixth Coalition saw the expulsion of French forces from Germany in 1813.
Napoleon abdicated in 11 April 1814. The Empire was briefly restored during the Hundred Days period in 1815 until Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo. It was followed by the restored monarchy of the House of Bourbon.


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 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_First_Republic

French First Republic

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French Republic République française
← 1792–1804 →
Flag
Motto Liberté, égalité, fraternité, ou la mort! Liberty, equality, brotherhood, or Death!
Anthem La Marseillaise[1]
French First Republic (c. 1800)
Capital		Paris
Languages		French
Government		Republic
Assembly
-	1792–1795	National Convention with Maximilien Robespierre leading the Convention
-	1795–1799	Directory with Paul Barras leading the Directory
-	1799–1804	Consulate with Napoleon Bonaparte as First Consul
Legislature		National Convention French Directory French Consulate
History
-	Storming of the Bastille and French Revolution	14 July 1789
-	Overthrow of Louis XVI	21 September 1792
-	Committee of Public Safety and Reign of Terror	5 September 1793 to 28 July 1794 Abolishment of slavery 4 February 1794.
-	Thermidorean Reaction	24 July 1794
-	Coup of 18 Brumaire	9 November 1799
-	Napoleon Bonaparte is proclaimed emperor by the Senate	18 May 1804
Currency		French Franc

Map of France by Louis Capitaine (1800)

The French First Republic (French: Première République française) was founded on 22 September 1792, by the newly established National Convention. The First Republic lasted until the declaration of the First French Empire in 1804 under Napoleon I. This period is characterized by the fall of the monarchy, the establishment of the National Convention and the infamous Reign of Terror, the founding of the Directory and the Thermidorian Reaction, and finally, the creation of the Consulate and Napoleon’s rise to power.


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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_France_%281791%E2%80%931792%29

Kingdom of France (1791–1792)

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For the "Kingdom of France" between 1830 and 1848, see July Monarchy.

Kingdom of the French Royaume des Français
← 1791–1792 →
Flag Royal Coat of arms
Motto La Nation, la Loi, le Roi "The Nation, the Law, the King"
The Kingdom of France in 1791, showing the former provinces and newly established departements
Capital		Paris
Languages		French
Religion		Roman Catholicism
Government		Constitutional Monarchy
King
-	1791–1792	Louis XVI
Legislature		Legislative Assembly
History
-	Constitution adopted	3 September 1791
-	Storming of the Tuileries	10 August 1792
-	Republic proclaimed	21 September 1792
Currency		Assignat

The Kingdom of France (French: Royaume de France), officially known^[where?] as the Kingdom of the French (French: Royaume des Français), was a short-lived constitutional monarchy that governed France from 3 September 1791 to 21 September 1792. De jure, the Kingdom of the French officially ended in 1814, after the restoration and when Louis XVIII became the De facto ruler of the Kingdom of France. Louis XVI (previously "King of France") ruled as the King of the French from the state's creation until its demise. From 1792, Louis XVII, son of Louis XVI, ruled as De jure and titular King of the French until 1795. The Kingdom of the French was France's first constitutional monarchy. Before that, France was an absolute monarchy. The Legislative Assembly suspended the monarchy on 11 August, the day after the Storming of the Tuileries Palace.^[1] The Legislative Assembly put the fate of the monarchy into the hands of the National Constituent Assembly (elected by universal male suffrage). The freshly elected National Constituent Assembly abolished the monarchy on 21 September 1792, ending 203 years of consecutive Bourbon rule over France. The House of Bourbon would not have de facto rule over France again until 1814, when Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI and uncle of Louis XVII, would regain power in the restoration of the monarchy.



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_France

Early modern France

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Kingdom of France
↓ 1492–1791 →
Royal Flag Royal Coat of arms
French territorial expansion, 1552–1798
Capital		Paris
Languages		French official language since the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts (1539)
Religion		Roman Catholicism
Government		Absolute Monarchy
King
-	1483–1498	Charles VIII (first)
-	1774–1791	Louis XVI (last)
Chief Minister
-	1589–1610	Maximilien de Béthune (first)
-	1790–1791	Armand Marc (last)
Legislature		limited legislative role: Estates-General, Parlement
History
-	Established	3 November 1492
-	Invasion of Italy	1494
-	French Wars of Religion	1562–1598
-	French Revolution (Storming of the Bastille)	14 July 1789
-	Disestablished	3 September 1791
Currency		French livre Écu French Franc Louis
Preceded by Succeeded by France in the Middle Ages Kingdom of Navarre Duchy of Lorraine County of Artois Pale of Calais Free County of Burgundy Kingdom of France (1791–1792)

Kingdom of France is the early modern period of French history from the end of the 15th century to the end of the 18th century (or from the French Renaissance to the climax of the French Revolution). During this period France evolved from a feudal regime to an increasingly centralized state (albeit with many regional differences) organized around a powerful absolute monarchy, the Kingdom of France that relied on the doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings and the explicit support of the established Church.



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages

France in the Middle Ages

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This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. This article needs additional citations for verification. (March 2012) This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. (March 2012) The lead section of this article may need to be rewritten. (March 2012)

Kingdom of France Royaume de France
← 843–1492 →
Flag Royal Coat of arms
The Kingdom of France in 1154
Capital		Paris
Languages		Latin, Old French, Occitan, Breton, Basque, Dutch
Religion		Roman Catholicism
Government		Hereditary Monarchy
King
-	843–877	Charles the Bald
-	1483–1498	Charles VIII
Legislature		Limited legislative role: Estates-General, Parlement
Historical era		Middle Ages
-	Treaty of Verdun	August 843
-	Battle of Bouvines	27 July 1214
-	Accession of the House of Valois	1 April 1328
-	Hundred Years' War	1337–1453
-	Burgundian Wars	1474–1477
-	Peace of Etaples	December 1492
Currency		Livre, Écu, Franc

France in the Middle Ages covers an area roughly corresponding to modern day France, from the death of Louis the Pious in 840 to the middle of the 15th century. The Middle Ages in France were marked by:

1. West Francia (843–987) and the Viking invasions and the piecemeal dismantling of the Carolingian Empire by local powers,
2. the elaboration of the seigneurial economic system and the feudal system of rights and obligations between lords and vassals,
3. the growth of the region controlled by the House of Capet (987–1328) and their struggles with the expanding Norman and Angevin regions,
4. a period of artistic and literary outpouring from the 12th to the early 14th centuries,
5. the rise of the House of Valois (1328–1589), the protracted dynastic crisis of the Hundred Years' War with the Kingdom of England (1337–1453) and the catastrophic Black Death epidemic (1348), and
6. the expansion of the French nation in the 15th century and the creation of a sense of French identity.

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 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia

Francia

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This article is about the geographical and political development of the lands of the Franks. For the Frankish people and society, see Franks. For other uses, see Francia (disambiguation).

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Frankish Empire Francia
3rd century–843
Frankish Empire, early 9th century
Capital		Not specified
Languages		Germanic, Romance, Slavic
Religion		Roman Catholic
Government		Monarchy
Historical era		Middle Ages
-	Established	3rd century
-	Treaty of Verdun	843
Currency		Byzantine coinage, denarius
Today part of		Andorra  Austria  Belgium  France  Guernsey  Jersey  Liechtenstein  Luxembourg  Monaco  The Netherlands  San Marino  Switzerland  Vatican City  Bosnia and Herzegovina  Croatia  Czech Republic  Denmark  Germany  Hungary  Italy  Serbia  Slovenia  Slovakia  Spain
Warning: Value not specified for "common_name"

Francia or Frankia, also called the Kingdom of the Franks or Frankish Kingdom (Latin: regnum Francorum), Frankish Realm or occasionally Frankland, was the territory inhabited and ruled by the Franks from the 3rd to the 10th century. Under the nearly continuous campaigns of Charles Martel, Pepin the Short, and Charlemagne—father, son, grandson—the greatest expansion of the Frankish empire was secured by the early 9th century.
The tradition of dividing patrimonies among brothers meant that the Frankish realm was ruled, nominally, as one polity subdivided into several regna (kingdoms or subkingdoms). The geography and number of subkingdoms varied over time, but the particular term Francia came generally to refer to just one regnum, that of Austrasia, centred on the Rhine and Meuse rivers in northern Europe; even so, sometimes the term was used as well to encompass Neustria north of the Loire and west of the Seine. Eventually, the singular use of the name Francia shifted towards Paris, and settled on the region of the Seine basin surrounding Paris, which still today bears the name Île-de-France, and which region gave its name to the entire Kingdom of France.




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